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EXPLANATIONS OF THEIR PROPERTIES AND MANAGEMENT, THE SOILS TO. 

WHICH THEY ARE APPLICABLE, AND THE PRECAUTIONS 
TO BE OBSERVED IN THEIR USE. 


ESPECIALLY ADAPTED TO THE WANTS OF PRACTICAL FARMERS. 


BY JAMES HYATT, 


CHEMIST OF THE MOUNT AIRY AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE, 1s. 
GERMANTOWN, PA. 


PRINTED FOR THE INSTITUTE, 
And for sale by J. W. Moors, 193 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia; Cuark & 
Austin, 205 Broadway, New York; and at Bookstores ; 
and Agricultural Warehouses generally. nae ; 
Price 123 Cents. STAG Rt 
1848. 


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LIME AND&MARL: 


THEIR 


AGRICULTURAL USES. 


WITH 


EXPLANATIONS OF THEIR PROPERTIES AND MANAGEMENT, THE SOILS TO 
WHICH THEY ARE APPLICABLE, AND THE PRECAUTIONS 
TO BE OBSERVED IN THEIR USE. 


ESPECIALLY ADAPTED TO THE WANTS OF PRACTICAL FARMERS, 


BY bA Miers HY ALT T, 


CHEMIST OF THE MOUNT AIRY AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE, 
GERMANTOWN, PA. 


—_—er1VvTtwr’— ses EE eee 


PRINTED FOR THE INSTITUTE, 


And for sale by J. W. Moorz, 193 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia; Crarx & 
Austin, 205 Broadway, New York; and at Bookstores 
and Agricultural Warehouses generally. 


Price 12} Cents. 
1848. 


ENTERED according to Act of Congress, in the year 1848, by 
JAMES HYATT, 


in the Clerk’s Office of the District Court of the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. 


PHILADELPHIA? 
T. K. AND P. G. COLLINS, PRINTERS. 


err er eee ge 


FPL ET 


PREFACE. 


ee 


No single substance, perhaps, has more extensively engaged 
the attention of farmers, as a means of improving their soils, than 
lime, including that admixture of it called marl ; and while it has, 
in many instances, fulfilled the high expectations that have been 
entertained of its beneficial effects, in other cases it has either 
signally failed, or proved decidedly injurious. And it cannot be 
denied, that, in general, much of the advantage which might have 
resulted from its use, has been lost, from the want of a correct 
understanding of the economy of its application. 

Although the effects of lime are in some respects mechanical, 
so that a portion of its influences are such as are derived from a 
change in the ¢ezture of the soil, yet its principal office is to act 
chemically upon various ingredients in soils; and, therefore, a 
knowledge of its chemical properties is indispensable to its judi- 
cious management. 

The exhaustion of soils by the use of lime, and the unfavorable 
results from the injudicious use of lime in a caustic state, having 
produced, with many, a distrust of its valuable properties, it is 
desirable that the means of avoiding such effects, without losing 

_the advantages to be gained by its proper use, should be gene- 


> rally understood. 


x 0 


It has been with a view to give greater publicity to those facts 


~ and principles which, indicated by theory, have been thoroughly 
ching tried and established by practice, that the writer has consented 
~ to undertake a task, which, although it may entitle him to little 
<~eredit, in the field of originality, may at least show his disposition 
r to be useful, in the dissemination of that knowledge of which, 


LQ Ay 


h54530 


vi PREFACE. 


heretofore, the great farming interest has been in some degree 
deprived. 

In order to obtain the information necessary to a complete un- 
derstanding of the properties of lime, and to an enlightened and 
judicious application of it to the soil, it has been necessary to pro- 
cure extended treatises on agriculture or on manures, from which, 
what facts they contained, generally quite incomplete, could only 
be gleaned by much labor and care ; so that such information has 
been, for the most part, where it was not to be had by all. 

Whatever more attainable publications have been issued, have 
either been in such a shape as not to have obtained general 
attention, or the time that has elapsed, and the improvements 
that have been made, since their publication, have detracted 
somewhat from their value. The observations on lime, made in 
our agricultural journals, are so much scattered through the dif- 
ferent numbers, and even if collected, are wanting in so many 
particulars, and need so much arrangement, as to form a serious 
obstacle to one desirous of knowing all that should be known on 
this subject. 3 

It has been thought, therefore, that a treatise, in which every- 
thing essential should be embodied, in a form requiring no tire- 
some search, and the cost of which should be no impediment to 
its general perusal, might be of service to the Agricultural world. 


CONTENTS. 


INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 

PAGE 

1. Objects of the treatise. 2. Attempted correctness. 3. References omitted. 
4, Facts relating to use of lime not discordant. 5. Originality - - > 


CHAPTER I. 


6. Lime composed of calcium and oxygen. 7. Chemical name. 8. How 
obtained, purity. 9. Lime is alkaline. 10. Its attraction for water. 11. 
Absorbs carbonic acid from the air. 12. Loses its caustic property, increasing 
in weight. 13. Different uses of the word lime. 14. Correct definition. 
15. Unites with acids; composition of gypsum and bone earth. 16. Other 
acids expel the carbonic from limestone. How lime is detected in soils. 
17. Quantity of water necessary to dissolve lime and limestone. Limestone 
soluble in water containing carbonic acid. 18. What marl is—properties, 
characteristic. 19. How marl may be known. 20. Other meanings of the 
word marl—how used in this treatise. 21. Value of marl, how determined. 
How affected by other substances besides carbonate of lime. Importance 
of phosphates. What organic matter is. Its proportion in soils, &c., how 
determined - - - - - - - - - - - - 10 


CHAPTER II. 


22. Lime useful on all soils not calcareous. 23. Peats, clays, exhausted lands, 
soils containing copperas, and those wanting potash and lime, most benefit- 
ed by liming. 24. Liming sometimes not indispensable. How little may 
suffice, 25. Liming profitable on fertile soils. Makes other manures the 
more necessary. 26. The increased production remunerates~ - - - 13 


CHAPTER III. 


27, Large quantities required on clays and peats. 28. Smaller quantities on 
exhausted lands. Must be no deficiency in organic matter. 29. Quantity 
where lime only is wanting. 30. How much is taken off by crops, &c. 

31. Less is required if caustic, more if mild. 32. Quantities used in a 
liberal system of farming. Precaution. Soil may become saturated. 33. 
Influence of the kind of crop, and texture of thesoil. 34. How much marl 
is proper, how determined. Effect of the sand, clay, and organic matter - 15 


CHAPTER IV. 


35. Frequent and small applications best. If too much is used, there is a 
loss. 36. Comparative expense of frequent and infrequent limings. Once 
in each rotation best. - - - - - - : > - - 16 


CHAPTER V. 


37, Lime must be used in a fine state of division, and so maintained. 38. 
Crushing and grinding sometimes preferred. 39, Marls to be dried and pul- 
verized by exposure. 40. Burning and over burning. Air slacking gene- 
rally preferable. Water slacking when preferred. Becomessomewhat mild 
by spontaneous slacking. 41, 42. Why water should be used cautiously in 
slacking. Wet lime forms mortar in the soil. Proper quantity of water. 
43. Caustic lime preferable only on soils containing too much inactive or- 
ganic matter. Partially mild lime equally useful. 44. Fully mild, eventu- 
ally as effective ; why not so injurious? 465, Lime does not show its effects 
the first year. 46. Trifling saving in the labor of the application of caustic 
lime. 47. Comparative intrinsic value of caustic and of mild lime—when to 
be considered. 48. Injurious effects of caustic lime on most soils ; on seeds; on 


9 


Vill CONTENTS. 


PAGE 


clays. 49. Composting lime more economical—why. 50, Caustic lime 
injurious in connection with nitrogenized manures. 51, Objection not ap- 
plicable to mild lime. How the escape of ammonia may be impeded. 52. ° 
Decomposition of organic matter better produced by fermentation. 53. 
Fixers of ammonia not reliable in connection with caustic lime. Carbonate 
of lime as effective in neutralizing acids. 54. Caustic lime more liable to 
loss by being dissolved. Carbonate sufficiently soluble by means of the con- 
tained carbonic acid - - . - : - : - - : 


CHAPTER VI. 


55. Depositing the unslacked lime in small heaps on the land, condemned. 
56. Advantages of scattering with a machine. 57. Lime should be kept 
near the surface--why. 58. When it may be more deeply incorporated. 
o9. Time of the application - - - - - : ° . - 


CHAPTER VII. 


60. Caustic lime must not be brought in contact with seed. 61. Nor with 
nitrogenized manure. 62. Wet lime injurious. 63. Also unslacked lime. 
64. Wet lands must be drained. 65. Liming must be connected with or- 
ganic manuring. 66. Lime cannot supply the want of other manures. 67. 
It must be applied a year previous to the crop which it is to effect. 68. 
Certain soils must be sparingly limed. 69. Magnesian limestone must not 
be used as a source of lime. 70, Different effects of claying, and of sandy 
marls. 71. Lime injures flax - - - - . - - - - 


CHAPTER VIII. 


72. Lime improves the texture of some soils. 73. Is required by plants. 
74, Promotes decomposition and supplies aliment. 75. Neutralizes acids. 
76. And affords carbonic acid. 77. Eradicates sorrel. 78. Decomposes sul- 
phates of iron, magnesia and alumina. 79. Is useful on new lands, and in 
subsoils. 80. Destroys insects. 81. Particularly benefits certain crops. 82. 
Improves their quantity and quality. Prevents “running to straw,” and de- 
stroys rust and fungus. 83. Improves pastures, stock, and the dairy pro- 
ducts. 84. Is useful with inorganic manures. ‘Too much ammonia not to 
be feared - - - - - - - - - - - ° 


CHAPTER IX. 


85. Limestone lands often deficient inlime. 86. Reason. 87. Other sources. 
88. Soils formed from the disintegration of granitic rocks, greatly wanting 
in lime. 89. Those from sienitic rocks considerably so. 90. Greenstone 
soils contain a greater abundance, 91. While those from serpentine are 
also deficient. 92. Slates and sandstones vary in their composition. Use 
of mineralogy and geology. 93. Other substances containing either lime, or 
its metallic base. 94. These may supply lime to plants, though not afford- 
ing it in its most available form for certain effects. 95. Lime found in com- 
bination with vegetable acids. 96. Marls formed from shells—ultimately 
from limestone. 97. And sometimes from other sources. Why marl is an 
economical source of lime. And is incapable of producing either the bene- 
ficial or the injurious effects of caustic lime. Chemical analysis generally 
not to be attempted by farmers—why. A knowledge of chemistry highly 
necessary. The farmer is'a practical chemist. All necessary knowledge 


readily attainable, and destined to become more generally diffused —- - 
Notrrt A. Exact chemical composition of lime, its hydrate and carbonate. 

Quantity of water for slacking - - - - - - - - 
Nore B. How the proportion of lime in a soil is determined - . - 
Notes C. The simple elements of soils and plants - - : 


Nore D. Injurious effects of magnesia in connection with lime—why. How 
magnesia in limestone may be detected, and the proportion determined. How 
to estimate the amount of certain foreign substances in limestone - - 


17 


21 


22 


23 


THE 


AGRICULTURAL USES 


OF 


LIME AND MARL. 


INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 


In view of the great importance of lime in Agriculture, of the 
gross errors often committed in its use, and of the general bene- 
fits to be obtained by its right application, the writer of this treat- 
ise will endeavor to point out the circumstances in connection 
with which it may be judiciously applied, as well as to refer to 
those in which it will be useless or hurtful. He proposes, also, 
to attempt an explanation of the mode of its action, the reasons 
of its usefulness, and the natural and artificial sources of its 
supply. 

2. In order that this exposition might be correct, if possible, in 
every particular, so as to lead none into error, and that it should 
be entitled to the attention of practical men, everywhere, much 
Jabor and thought have been bestowed upon it. It will be found, 
perhaps, to consist, not of the experience of a single individual, 
nor of the speculations of a hasty theorist, but to embody the re- 
sults of the observations of sound and successful farmers, in this 
and in other countries, and to be in accordance, also, with the 
true principles of Agricultural Chemistry. 

3. And as to be useful, this exposition must be brief, it has 
been thought advisable to omit statements of actual results, and 
particular cases, confining the observation to those general prin- 
ciples that are well established, and that, taking modifying cir- 
cumstances in account, are worthy of universal adoption. 

4, Fortunately, the testimonies in regard to the use of lime, 
are most complete and harmonious ;—the proofs are abundant, 
and are not at variance with each other. 


10 WHAT LIME IS COMPOSED OF. 


5. It must be anticipated that very little of what is new, or 
original, can be introduced into this essay, for the subject has 
occupied the attention of both theoretical and practical men for 
so long a time, and to such an extent, that the chief labor of the 
writer has consisted, rather in collecting, comparing, and arrang- 
ing facts, from a variety of sources, than in making observations 
and experiments. He thinks it sufficient to mention, that, having 
the opportunities, he has freely availed himself of the experience 
and investigations of those who have interested themselves in 
Agriculture, in this country and in Europe. 


CHAPTER I. 


THE COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF LIME. 


6. Lime is composed of two simple bodies, of which one is a 
shining white metal called Calcium, and the other is a gas, exist- 
ing abundantly in both air and water. This gas is called Oxygen. 

7. Lime, therefore, is a compound of calcium and oxygen, 
called Oxide of Calcium. And as chemists have found that cal- 
cium may be artificially combined with twice the proportion of 
oxygen that is invariably found in lime, they partially distinguish 
between these two oxides, by calling lime Protozide of Calcium, 
that is, the first oxide. 

8. Lime is well known to be obtained by heating limestone, 
marble, chalk, shells, etc., to a very high bright red heat. These 
substances are chiefly composed of lime, united with carbonic 
acid; and the heat merely drives off the acid in the form of gas. 
Obtained thus, freshly burned, lime is often called guicklime, and 
is pure if obtained from pure white marble ; otherwise it contains 
variable proportions of other substances, such as flint, oxide of 
iron, magnesia, etc. 

9. Lime possesses, though in an inferior degree, the distinctive 
chemical properties of potash and soda ; that is, it has a biting, 
or burning taste, and changes vegetable blue colors to a green, 
so that it is an alkaline substance. 

10. The attraction of lime for water and for acids is very 
powerful; for on being exposed to the atmosphere, though in 


ITS CHANGES AND PROPERTIES. 1l 


large lumps, it attracts about one-third of its own weight of wa- 
ter, and spontaneously slacks, or is converted into what is called 
a hydrate, a finé dry powder. 

11. When the lime is thus combined with water, the carbonic 
acid of the air acts upon it, and rapidly driving off one-half of 
the water and taking its place, diminishes the caustic property of 
the lime, and renders it somewhat mild, adding still more to its 
weight. 

12. After this, the same action continues, though very slowly, 
until the carbonic acid has expelled all the water, and the lime 
has entirely lost its caustic property, and is rendered mild carbon- 
ate of lime, being in the same condition in which it was before 
being burned, except that it is in powder. It is now about one 
and three-fourths times as heavy as when taken from the kiln, and 
its bulk is also much increased, being often more than doubled. 
(See note A.) 

13. What ordinarily goes by the name of lime, may, tiferethre! 
be in any one of the four following states. Ist. Unalaekedt lime, 
quicklime, or that freshly burned. 2d. Caustic lime, or hydrate 
of lime,—-such as is obtained by slacking quicklime with water. 
3d. Air slacked lime, which is generally partly a hydrate, and 
partly a carbonate. 4th. Carbonate of lime, or that which has 
become fully mild by the absorption of carbonic acid, and pos- 
sesses no caustic nor alkaline property. 

14. The word lime correctly used, means that which is called 
quicklime, in its pure and fresh state. 

15. Lime possesses an attraction not only for carbonic acid, 
but for acids generally, and is found in nature combined with 
sulphuric, nitric, phosphoric, silicic, oxalic, and other acids. 
Lime united with sulphuric acid and water, constitutes gypsum, 
or plaster; and with phosphoric acid it forms the earthy part of 
bones, a phosphate of lime. | 

16. Almost all acids, including common vinegar, are capable 
of driving off carbonic acid from carbonate of lime. They then 
take its place. This furnishes one method of detecting the pre- 
sence of carbonate of lime in soils, for by pouring vinegar, or 
some other dilute acid upon the suspected substance, if carbonic — 
acid be present it will be set free, giving rise to an effervescence 
or foaming, such as we see in a glass of soda-water. As car- 
bonic acid is not often considerably combined with any other 


12 ITS SOLUBILITY.—MARL—PROPERTIES. 


substance than lime, in soils, the foaming is usually a reliable 
proof of the presence of carbonate of lime. (See nofe B.) 

17. The hydrate of lime requires nearly eight hundred times 
its weight of water at the temperature of 60° to dissolve it, and 
still more at higher temperatures. Mild carbonate of lime re- 
quires more than ten thousand times its weight of pure water to 
dissolve it. Butif the water contain carbonic acid, as is generally 
the case with spring water, the limestone or carbonate dissolves 
more freely.* 

18. Marl contains from ten to ninety per cent. of carbonate of 
lime or mild lime, with variable proportions of sand, clay, and 
animal, vegetable, and other matter. It is a substance which 
greatly varies in its appearance and properties. It is often an 
earthy matter that, when dry, readily falls into powder. Its 
characteristic, however, is that it contains lime in the mild form. 

19. When any substance is suspected to be marl, or to contain 
it, the matter may be determined by pouring vinegar, or some 
other dilute acid upon it, when if the effervescence or foaming, 
before mentioned, ensues, it may be considered that carbonate of 
lime is present. 

20. It is proper to mention, however, that the term marl is 
sometimes used to denote any fertilizing earthy matter, and has 
been applied to a substance rich in potash, found in some locali- 
ties, which is also a valuable manure; but the writer, in his use 
of the word, will consider mar] to be a mixture of carbonate of 
lime with other substances, as first explained. 

21. The value of any specimen of mar] may in general be esti- 
mated by the amount of the effervescence which ensues, on pour- 
ing vinegar or muriatic acid upon it; or may be more accurately 
determined by a chemical analysis, which shows the proportion of 
carbonate of lime, though; if the analysis show all the ingredients 
and their proportions, it is more useful. Marls frequently con- 
tain, also, a small proportion of phosphate of lime. Phosphates 
are highly useful in all soils, and add, therefore, to the value of the 
marl. Whatever organic matter, that is, whatever animal or vege- 
table substance, the marl contains, will, for most purposes, increase 
its value. The quantity of organic matter may be determined by 
burning the marl at a dull red heat. The loss in weight is the 


* The sulphate of lime, or gypsum, is soluble in 430 times its weight of water, 
at common temperatures, 


THE SOILS MOST BENEFITED BY LIME. 13 


weight of the organic matter; for organic matter is that which, 
having been deposited by some plant or animal, disappears again, 
or goes off in the form of gas, when burned. The admixture of 
sand or clay in marl, may add to its value or not, according as 
these substances prevail in the soil to which the marl is to be 
applied. 


CHAPTER Ii. 


OF THE SOILS ON WHICH LIME IS USEFUL. 


22. Lime may be advantageously applied, in proper quantities, 
and under proper circumstances, to all soils, except to marly and 
calcareous ones, that is, except to those which already contain up- 
wards of 5 or 6 per cent. of carbonate of lime, and in certain cases, 
even, to some of these. 

23. The lands which lime benefits in the greatest degree are 
the following: | 

Peaty soils and those which contain large quantities of vegeta- 
ble matter ; 

Clayey soils which are needed to be rendered more light, open, 
and active ; 

Lands that are worn out by long and exhausting culture ; 

Soils sterile from the existence of green copperas (proto-sul- 
phate of iron), in considerable quantities ; 

Soils wanting potash ; 

And those which are found to be deficient in the quantity of 
lime necessary for its supply to the growing crops. 

On other soils, lime may often be profitably employed according 
to their mechanical condition and chemical composition, and to 
the expense of liming ; as will be hereafter explained. 

24. Those soils which contain a proper proportion of the different 
other mineral ingredients necessary to fertility, together with sufh- 
cient organic matter, and which are of the right mechanical struc- 
ture, as to mellowness, being neither too compact nor too open, 
may need no application of lime, for a long series of years, 
although the percentage of lime in them is very small. Chemi- 
cal analyses have shown, that soils known to be fertile without 


14 LIME ON FERTILE SOILS. 


manures,* may contain no more than one five-hundredth part of 
lime: for then, though the proportion of lime is inconsiderable, 
yet we learn by calculation that an acre of soil, six inches in 
depth, will contain about a ton and a half of lime, undoubtedly 
more than sufficient for the supply of rotations of crops for a quar- 
ter of a century. 

25. These fertile soils, however, which contain such small, and 
even somewhat larger proportions of lime, may doubtless be made 
to yield larger and surer crops, by its addition in considerable 
quantities. The effects of lime on such soils are, with proper 
management, altogether beneficial, notwithstanding that they 
then require, besides the expense of liming, a more costly system 
of manuring. The increased production that follows the liming 
tends to exhaust the soil of its necessary ingredients, (see note 
C,) and to destroy its fertile properties, so that while lime is con- 
tinued to be applied, instead of supplying the place of other ma- 
nures, it becomes necessary to be more liberal in their application. 
The farmer who increases his crops, without increasing his ma- 
nures, will soon render his soil barren. 

26. All this extra labor and expense, however, will be amply re- 
paid by the gain in production; for if there is any profit in raising 
a light or a medium crop, on a piece of land, this profit rapidly 
swells, as the same land is made to yield its heavier products.— 
[t. would not be advisable that time and money should be lay- 
ished in the injudicious and extravagant application of manures. 
That which a farm is capable of yielding in the shape of animal 
and vegetable manures, should be carefully husbanded, as well 
as that which can be economically purchased and applied.— 
And foreign substances in the shape of ashes, plaster, bone-dust, 
or salt, of which the land may stand in absolute want, must be 
procured. With care and good ‘judgment, in these matters, 
such a soil as is referred to, may be limed with great advantage. 


* By manure is meant any substance whatever added to a soil to increase its 
fertility. 


QUANTITY OF LIME TO BE APPLIED, 15 


CHAPTER III. 


THE QUANTITY OF LIME TO BE APPLIED. 


27. Own clayey and peaty soils, the application may be very 
liberal: indeed little benefit is to be expected from the use of 
lime on such soils, except in large quantities. From one hundred 
to one thousand bushels an acre are used; and on these soils, there 
is little to be feared from an over application. 

28. On worn out lands, from ten to fifty bushels an acre, is a 
sufficient quantity, and when the amount intended to be applied, 
is nearer the larger of the above proportions, it is better that the 
application should be divided into smaller parts, and repeated at 
intervals, in the course of the rotation, or between the rotations. 
On exhausted soils, particularly, it is necessary to see that there 
is no deficiency in the organic elements, and to supply any such 
deficiency in connection with the liming. 

29, When a soil possesses every requisite of fertility, except 
that lime is wanting, a first application of ten bushels to the acre, 
and subsequent ones at the rate of two or three bushels an acre, 
annually, are sufficient to supply the original want, and to furnish 
as much to the soil as is taken off by the crops. 

30. Applied at this rate of two or three bushels to an acre a 
year, the quantity of lime necessary to the fertility of a soil, will 
be supplied, with ordinary systems of rotation. But if those 
crops only are cultivated which tend most to exhaust the lime 
of a soil, greater quantities must be applied. Thus roots, as 
potatoes, turnips, beets, &c., and clover, all in an eminent de- 
gree, as well as grasses generally, exhaust the lime to a greater 
extent, and require more plentiful applications. 

31. The chemical condition of the lime is, however, always 
to be considered, in determining the amount to be applied. When 
slacked suddenly and used immediately, in the caustic state, 
smaller quantities are required than those mentioned in this 
treatise; while if the lime has lain for many months, thoroughly 
exposed to the air so as to be entirely mild and carbonated, larger 
quantities may safely be used. 

32. When it is intended, by a liberal system of farming, to 


16 A SOIL MAY BECOME FILLED WITH LIME. 


procure large and sure returns, and where lime or marl is to be 
had at a moderate expense, medium quantities, say five to fifteen 
bushels an acre, annually; that is, twenty to sixty bushels an 
acre, for each rotation of four years, may be applied, with 
great advantage, to soils already quite fertile, taking care that the 
animal and vegetable portion of the soil is maintained undimin- 
ished, by ploughing in green crops, or by alternating the appli- 
cations of lime with those of yard, or other organic manure. But, 
as common systems of cropping do not take as much lime from 
the soil, as the larger of the above proportions would furnish, a 
time will arrive, after a number of rotations, when the soil will 
be filled with lime to such an extent, that the further use of it 
would be either of no avail, or decidedly hurtful. ‘There can be 
no utility in the application of lime to a soil which already contains 
twelve or fourteen per cent. 

33. The length of time before the soil will become saturated, 
will depend, not only on the extent of the limings, and on the 
nature of the crops, but also on the texture of the soil and subsoil. 
A retentive texture will not permit the fine particles of lime so 
readily to fall through it, nor will it allow of so great a waste, by 
the solution and washing out of the lime. 

34. In the application of marl, we are to be guided by the 
proportions of its ingredients. Leaving out of view the sand or 
clay, of the usefulness of which on his soils every intelligent 
farmer is competent to judge, we have only to determine the 
proportion of carbonate of lime in the marl, and then to apply 
so much as will furnish the desired quantity of this ingredient. 
Should the organic matter of the marl be considerable, larger 
quantities may be applied on such soils as would be benefited 
both by lime and by animal and vegetable matter. 


CHAPTER IV. 
FREQUENCY OF THE APPLICATIONS. 
35. ALL experience has shown smaller and oftener repeated 


applications, to be, by far, the most economical. The reasons 
are, that the large quantities which are necessarily applied when 


LIME,—HOW OFTEN APPLIED. Fi 


the intervals are long, are more likely to be injurious, and also, 
that much of the effect of these is lost before it can be felt by the 
crops, from its sinking through the soil, either in the solid state, 
or dissolved by water. The economy of the custom, even, which 
prevails in some countries, to apply heavy limings at long inter- 
vals, so that a tenant may be able to avail himself of the full 
effeer until quite spent, of a liming made at the commencement 
of ike lease, is very questionable. 

36. The expense of applying a given oe ie will of course 
be less, if the whole be applied at once, instead of in divided 
portions, at successive times; and this, together with the conse- 
quent inconvenience, will, for the most part, prevent annual lim- 
ings. An application once in each rotation, will generally be 
found most judicious. 


CHAPTER V. 


THE PREPARATION OF THE LIME, AND THE STATE IN’ WHICH 
IT SHOULD BE APPLIED. 


37. Lime should be applied in the finest possible state of 
division, and under such circumstances as to be maintained in 
this condition. 

38. Where it is to be applied in the mild form, it may, in some 
locations, be more economically procured in this form, by crushing 
and grinding limestone, chalk, shells, &¢. This method may be 
preferred where fuel for burning is expensive, and power for 
crushing is more available. Calcareous shells and coral sands, 
which occasionally occur, are suitable for direct application. 

39. Marls in general, need to be drawn out and exposed, so 
as to be dried, and often, by the action of the weather to be pul- 
verized, before being spread. Many marls do not become sufh- 
ciently pulverized until both the heat of summer and the frosts 
of winter have acted upon them. 

40. But where fuel is abundant, limestone, shells, ete., may 
be more conveniently prepared for pulverization by burning.* 


* When limestone containing much flint is used, it is liable to be over-burned by too 
high a temperature, so as to be rendered inactive. 


2 


18 THE SLACKING,—HOW TO BE MANAGED. 


The subsequent slacking, or combination of the quicklime with 
water, to form the hydrate, may be accomplished either by ex- 
posure to the atmosphere, or by the direct application of water ; 
the latter method being preferable, only when it is desired, by 
the rapidity of the process, to prevent the recombination of the 
lime with carbonic acid, so as to obtain and apply it in its hot or 
caustic state. Spontaneous slacking is less troublesome, and, 
except in the case just mentioned, equally advantageous. 

When slacked by exposure to the atmosphere, though ex- 
amined immediately after the lumps have completely fallen into 
powder, the lime will be found carbonated to a very considerable 
extent. 

41. When slacked by the direct method, in the more rapid 
way, the water should be applied very gradually, otherwise there 
will be many small lumps, and the process will be neither so 
rapid nor so complete. 

42. Care should also be taken that the quantity of water used 
be not so great as to bring the slacked lime, or hydrate, to the state 
of a paste ; enough only being applied to complete the slacking, 
and to reduce the lime to fine dry powder. The amount of water 
required is, what will weigh about one-third as much as the lime. 
(See note A.) If used in a wet state, lime is liable to unite with 
substances in the soil, and form a mass that sets, and becomes 
hard like mortar. It is evident, that inattention to these particu- 
lars may diminish the benefits to be expected, or may result in 
positive injury. 

43. As to the question whether lime should be used in its 
caustic or in its mild form, it may be observed, that caustic lime 
is preferable only on soils where there is too great an abund- 
ance of inactive vegetable matter, and on those in which organic 
manure lies unchanged and ineffective ; the partially mild lime, 
obtained by spontaneous slacking, being equally useful in all other 
cases, for this certainly, if applied soon after being slacked, still 
contains enough caustic lime to produce all such effects as may 
be thought necessary. 

44. Indeed, it is generaly admitted that pulverized chalk, or 
burned lime which has become fully carbonated, is, in all cases, ex- 
cept in the above, equally effective and scarcely more slow in its 
action. Mild lime is also less liable to injure either the texture of 
the soil, or its chemical properties, while it does not exhaust to 


WHETHER CAUSTIC OR MILD LIME IS PREFERABLE. 19 


the extent that caustic lime does, by causing a greater loss of vege- 
table matter than is required or taken up by the growing crops. 

45. The more rapid and more effective action of caustic lime 
may well be questioned, in view of the observed fact that the 
results of its application are seldom seen the first year, so that 
before this influence is exerted, it probably has time to become 
fully mild. 

46. It is true, that the expense of applying the quantity requi- 
site to produce a given effect may be something less, if applied 
in the caustic state, because, when fully carbonated, it is about 
one-fifth heavier than the same amount of lime, in the form of 
hydrate. This difference, however, is not so great as it has 
generally been estimated, for the carbonate has erroneously been 
compared with unslacked lime, a form in which it is never advisa- 
ble that lime should be applied. 

47. The only cases in which it is necessary to take into ac- 
count the really considerable difference, both in bulk and in 
weight, between unslacked lime and the carbonate (See note A). 
are in the purchase, and in carting from the kiln. Unslacked 
lime, pound for pound, or bushel for bushel, is really worth a 
great deal more than the fully carbonated, or even than the re- 
cently air-slacked article; so that, if sold at the same price, the 
lime burners would make a large profit, by allowing their lime to 
be exposed to the air, and the purchaser would waste his money 
in buying and carting gas and vapor, which he could have in 
abundance at home, for nothing. 

48. The trifling saving in the mere application of pure caustic 
lime, would not compensate for its injurious tendencies, on all 
soils, except on the peaty, the mucky, on those exceedingly rich 
in vegetable matter, and on those in which yard manure lies inact- 
ive. In fact, unless there is so much organic matter that it be- 
comes desirable to dissipate it, the application of completely car- 
bonated lime is generally more safe and judicious, while the 
use of lime, as soon as it can be air-slacked, especially in a 
moist atmosphere, being then still somewhat caustic, will be 
about as effective in all cases, and in most be altogether prefera- 
ble to the use of caustic lime. Besides, caustic lime should not be 
used in contact with seeds or herbage. On clays, also, the use 
of caustic lime must tend rather to injure than to improve the 


» 


20 CAUSTIC LIME NOT TO BE USED WITH SOME MANURES. 


texture of the soil; with carbonate of lime there is not the same 
liability to the formation of a mortar that cakes and hardens. 

49. By composting lime with five or six times its bulk of earth, 
a considerable saving may generally be made, particularly where 
lime is expensive. The more complete manner in which it may 
afterwards be incorporated with the soil, renders a smaller quan- 
tity equally efficacious. This composting is no doubt always 
best, except on peats, and is greatly preferable on light sandy 
soils, in which the use of lime might otherwise prove of little 
avail. 

50. Although it may seem to conflict with the theory of a 
celebrated chemist, it must, nevertheless, be said that both science 
and judicious practice tell us, that the use of lime which is at all 
caustic, in compost heaps, in connection with animal and vege- 
table matter, and especially in composts of yard manure and 
urine, is decidedly injurious. He who desires to husband his 
resources, and to have early matured, and large crops of grain, 
or seeds of any kind, should not mix caustic lime, either in the 
compost heap, or wm the soul, with yard manure, urine, guano, 
night-soil, or with any manure containing nitrogen; for it is well 
known that caustic lime expels ammonia (the form which nitrogen 
generally takes in these manures) from its combinations. | 

51. This objection does not apply to lime that is completely 
carbonated, but as air-slacked lime does not become entirely 
carbonated, without long exposure, much care is requisite in this 
matter, unless, indeed, means be used, as is sometimes done, to 
prevent the escape of whatever ammonia may be liberated. A 
covering for the compost heap of moist muck, or clayey soil, or 
the incorporation of these substances in the heap, may serve this 
purpose to a greater or less extent, whenever it is determined to 
use caustic lime. ; 

52. Still the decomposition of organic matter, for which, 
alone, caustic lime need be used in the compost heap, may be 
produced in other ways, and particularly by fermentation. Thus 
the liability to loss of the ammonia, may be avoided. 

53. Iiven the use of such fixers of ammonia as gypsum and 
copperas, cannot be depended upon in connection with caustic 
lime, though these agents are quite reliable under other circum- 
stances. In the muck heap, besides, carbonate of lime is just as 
effective for neutralizing such vegetable acids as are likely to be 


/ 


APPLICATION WITH A MACHINE, ETC. 21 


injuriously present. Here, therefore, caustic lime need not be 
employed. 

54. There are still other objections to the use of lime in a 
caustic state. The hydrate of lime being about thirteen times 
more soluble than the carbonate, there is greater liability to its 
loss by washing out, from the action of water, and heavy rains; 
while the small proportion of carbonic acid present in the moist- 
ure of a soil, dissolves both hydrate and carbonate, to a sufficient 
extent to furnish plants with their lime. The fact that carbonic 
acid is less abundant in the heavy rains which are more liable to 
result injuriously, gives additional force to the opinion, that 
caustic lime is more liable to waste than that which is mild. 


CHAPTER VI. 


MODE OF APPLICATION AND STATE OF THE SOIL. 


55. When the quantity applied is quite small, broadcast sowing 
is most common, but with larger proportions, shoveling from the 
cart, or depositing in heaps and subsequent spreading, is resorted 
to. The plan of drawing the unslacked lime out on the land, 
and depositing it in small heaps to slack, is not considered as 
profitable as previous slacking. 

56. Inasmuch as the equal distribution of the lime is a very 
essential matter, and as the sowing and spreading are both la- 
borious and unpleasant, the use of a machine for these purposes, 
becomes a matter not only of convenience, but of great economy. 
There can be no less troublesome means of distributing the lime, 
and none so effectual in securing a uniform application, in any 
desired proportion. 

57. There is no doubt that lime should be kept on, or near the 
surface, so that whatever ploughing or harrowing is resorted to 
in order to incorporate it with the soil, should be as shallow as 
possible. The beneficial effects of lime depend very considerably 
on the assistance which is rendered by the carbonic acid of the 
atmosphere, and of the light rains, and besides, lime sinks down- 
ward, by being dissolved, and from the fineness of its division, 
by all movements of the particles of the soil produced by the 


22 HOW LIME MAY BE USELESS OR INJURIOUS. 


stirring of implements and rains. We may therefore calculate 
that it will produce all desirable effects below the surface » though 
not deeply incorporated with the soil. 

58. When, however, lime is cheap, the application is large, 
there is vegetable atter to be decomposed and acids to be neu- 
tralized, and when more rapid effects are desired, such a concur- 
rence of circumstances would warrant a more deep incorporation, 
though even then it should not be wholly turned from the surface. 

59. On pastures, lime is sown, or very thinly spread; on 
fallows, but more especially in Jarge quantities on peaty soils 
and stiff clays, it may be applied before breaking up with the 
plough; but on cultivated fertile soils, the smaller application 
commonly made, is best applied immediately before the last 
harrowing. 


CHAPTER VII. 


PRECAUTIONS IN THE USE OF LIME. 


Many of the facts belonging under this head have been before 
referred to; but it may be advisable that the whole should be 
here included. 

60. Highly caustic lime should not be introduced into direct 
contact with seed, in the hill or drill. 

61. Caustic lime should not be applied with yard manure, nor 
with any of the before-mentioned manures which contain nitrogen. 
Very coarse unfermented matter is not so liable to be injured by 
it, especially if covered with earth or muck, so that the liberated 
gases may be absorbed. 

62. Lime should not be used in a wet state; nor should water 
be too rapidly applied in slacking it. | 

63. Unslacked lime should not be applied. 

64. On wet lands, unless the liming is preceded by draining, 
little benefit can be expected. 

65. Care should be taken to maintain a sufficient amount of 
organic matter in the soil, for liberal liming and cropping would 
otherwise render it bares 

66. It must be borne in mind that lime can never Sipply the 


MODES OF ITS OPERATION. 93 


place of other manures. Jt cannot furnish sulphuric acid like 
gypsum, nor phosphoric acid like bones, guano, yard manure, 
and some marls, nor chlorine and sodium like common salt. 
Lime may assist to set potash free from substances in the soil, 
but where there is no potash, it cannot furnish it like ashes. 

67. As its action is not immediate, whenever it is desired that 
lime shall affect a particular crop, it should be applied at least a 
year previous. 

68. The liming of shallow, of dry, and of light sandy soils should 
be very moderate. Small applications only are required, or are 
advantageous on worn out soils, as well as on fertile ones. 

69. The presence of magnesia, in any considerable quantity, 
being considered unfavorable to vegetation, and more especially 
in connection with lime, care must be observed that the lime is 
not obtained from magnesian limestone. (See note D.) 

70. Clayey marls are best on sandy soils, and sandy marls on 
clays. The contrary course may sometimes be injurious, as well 
as the excessive use of any marl. 

71. As lime is thought to injure the strength of the fibre of 
flax, it should not be applied so as to unfavorably affect this crop. 


CHAPTER VIII. 
BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF LIME, AND THE MANNER OF ITS OPERATION. 


72. Lime acts both mechanically and chemically : mechani- 
cally, from its loose open nature, it renders clayey and heavy soils 
more light, diminishes their tenacity, assists the passage of water 
through them, and thus renders their tillage less difficult ; its 
other effects are mostly chemical. 

73. Lime being so universally found in the ashes of plants, 
we must conclude that it is necessary to their healthy growth, and 
therefore, if absent, or nearly so, in soils, it must be supplied. 

74. It assists the decomposition of organic matter, and is, there- 
fore, beneficial where this matter is abundant or inert. The 
rotting of sward turned in, and of bogs, is considered to be pro- 
moted by caustic lime. By undergoing this decomposition, organic 
matter is converted into food for plants. 


24 HOW LIME MAY BE USEFUL. 


75. It neutralizes, and combines with the acids which are in- 
jurious in soils, and especially abundant in peats and mucks. In 
combination with some of these acids, it is more soluble, and is, 
therefore, more readily taken up to supply the wants of plants. 

76. When it combines with these acids, it yields up its car- 
bonic acid, which may be absorbed by roots, and thus the growth 
of the crop may be materially promoted. ‘These compounds of 
lime with vegetable acids may be gradually decomposed, so as 
to furnish further food for plants, while the lime again takes the 
form of carbonate, and thus runs a perpetual round of usefulness. 

77. Lime is capable of converting oxalate of potash or salt of 
sorrel, into insoluble oxalate of lime, and may thus prevent the 
growth of sorrel. 

78. Green copperas, or proto-sulphate of iron, which is present 
in some soils, materially impairing their fertility, is decomposed 
by lime, gypsum being formed, and the iron becoming peroxidized, 
is made useful, instead of remaining hurtful. A similar decom- 
position of sulphate of magnesia and sulphate of alumina is ad- 
vantageously promoted by lime. | 

79. From its effects on the vegetable acids, and on other de- 
leterious substances, which are often present in subsoils, and in 
those brought for the first time under cultivation, the application 
of lime to these is generally found highly advantageous. 

80. The application of caustic lime may sometimes assist in 
the destruction of insects. 

81. Lime may be expected to benefit potatoes, turnips and red 
clover, which require larger quantities of it. Potatoes are ren- 
dered more mealy by liming. The tops, which contain the largest 
proportion of the lime, should not be wasted. 

82. It is acknowledged that lime improves the quality of the 
grain crops, so that the seed is thinner skinned, and furnishes 
more and better flour. The crops of peas and beans are bene- 
fited both in quantity and quality. It diminishes the tendency to 
the formation of too much straw, assists to give inflexibility to 
the straw, so that the crop will stand more firmly, and by tending 
to prevent the formation of rust and fungus, diminishes the unfa- 
vorable effects of wet seasons. 

83. According to the most reliable experience, lime, on many 
pasture lands, improves the quality both of the grasses and of the 
products of the dairy. ‘The butter and cheese are better, and it 


LIMESTONE LAND MAY LACK LIME. 95 


is admitted that the stock feeding on limed pastures, is improved 
in health and general condition; though caustic lime may often 
be injurious, and especially to young stock. 

84, The application of lime to composts of muck and of vege- 
table matter generally, will have an excellent effect; but mild 
lime is preferable for this purpose, especially when matters con- 
taining nitrogen are added to the heap. Whatever may be the 
quantity of ammonia, either in the soil or in the atmosphere, it is 
not so great that we. must drive it out of our manure heaps 
by the use of caustic lime. We need not fear an undue propor- 
tion of this most necessary aliment of cultivated crops, but should 
rather endeavor, particularly as it costs no considerable labor, to 
husband this, as well as all other substances that are capable of 
assisting the growth of plants. 


CHAPTER IX. 


THE SOURCES OF LIME, AND THE SOILS WHICH NATURALLY CONTAIN 
IT, OR ARE DEFICIENT. 


85. Tuat marl, shell sand, chalk, shells, limestone, marble 
and coral, contain lime, and are both the natural and artificial 
sources of it, is well known.* Soils associated with limestone 
rocks, frequently contain a considerable portion of lime; but it-has 
been noticed that, though resting upon limestone or chalk, or even 
abounding in shells, or in loose masses or pebbles of limestone, 
they are sometimes almost totally destitute of lime in such a form 
as to be useful, that is, in a fine state of division. 

86. This, doubtless, is accounted for by supposing the soil to 
have been derived from other sources than these rocks, and from 
the fact, that the firm texture of the shells or pebbles has, as yet, 
prevented their crumbling so as to form a part of the available 
soil. Hence, it often arises that liming proves advantageous on 
what are called limestone lands. 

87. Besides these enumerated sources, known to be abundant 


* The sea shore, and lands adjoining, in some localities, abound in a shell or a 
coral sand, which being rich in carbonate of lime, is a valuable manure. 


26 STATE AND SOURCES OF LIME IN SOILS. 


in lime, there are rocks which, without being principally com- 
posed of it, yet contain it in considerable quantities, while there 
are others in which it is entirely wanting. 

88. The granitic rocks, including gneiss and mica slate, are 
either destitute of lime, or contain it in very small proportions. 
Soils derived from these rocks will, therefore, contain little lime, 
and be capable of improvement by larger or smaller quantities, 
according as clay or sand may predominate in them. 

89. The sienitic rocks, often included among the granites, con- 
tain a somewhat larger proportion of lime, and the derived soils 
will be of similar composition. On these soils, doubtless, lime 
may generally be employed with advantage. 

90. Greenstone rocks and soils contain a more liberal propor- 
tion of lime, and stand in less need of its application. In some, 
this proportion is probably sufficient. 

91. The serpentine rocks furnish little or no lime to the soils 
which are derived from them ; liming is, therefore, indispensable 
with these soils. 

92. The slates and sandstone vary so much in their composition, 
that no general rules can here be given that will indicate, with 
much certainty, the proportion of lime in soils derived from them ; 
some are destitute of lime, while others contain considerable 
proportions. 

A knowledge of the principles of mineralogy and geology will 
greatly assist the farmer in judging of the constituents and pro- 
perties of soils, from knowing those of the rocks with which they 
are associated ; while the same knowledge will show him that it is 
necessary, when forming his opinion from geological and mineralo- 
gical data, to consider whether the soil has been derived from the 
surrounding or underlying rocks, or whether it is a drift from 
some other locality, and of a different origin. 

93. There are also minerals which contain lime, though not in 
the form of carbonate, but combined with other acids. And the 
lime of sienitic rocks is in combination with silicic acid, called 
flint, constituting silicate of lime, while phosphate of lime exists 
in small proportions in all fertile soils. Sulphate of lime also, 
known as gypsum, or plaster, is extensively used in many dis- 
tricts. Chloride of calcium, as well as the fluoride, are natural 
substances, which, though containing no lime, have one of its 
elements, calcium, for their base, and this may, by natural causes, 


MARLS,—HOW DEPOSITED— WHERE FOUND. 27 


be converted into lime. The nitrate of lime which exists to some 
extent, is also a valuable salt. 

94. These substances may become the source of lime to plants, 
though they are to some extent incapable of the sort of influence 
exerted by carbonated or caustic lime, in assisting the decompo- 
sition of organic matter, in neutralizing vegetable acids, and in 
preparing, in the way that lime does, the food of plants. They 
may be looked upon, however, as highly useful substances, capa- 
ble of supplying to some extent the want of lime in the other forms. 

95. The existence of lime in soils, in combination with vege- 
table acids, has been referred to, as well as the important pur- 
poses which it then serves. ‘These organic compounds of lime 
are dependent somewhat on the pre-existence of caustic lime or 
the carbonate. In the application of lime to muck, they are 
generally formed in considerable quantities. 

96. Marls are for the most part formed from deposits of fresh 
water shells, in lakes and ponds, the animals having secreted the 
carbonate of lime of these shells from the water in which they 
lived. These ponds being formed from water passing through 
limestone, have derived their carbonate of lime from that source, 
as waterimpregnated with carbonic acid is a solvent of limestone. 
In some cases the water itself directly deposits the carbonate of 
lime. ‘The shells, or the earthy matter containing them, are often 
afterward covered by a subsequent layer of peat or muck—or 
are more or less mingled with such vegetable matter as these 
ponds fill up into marshes. To swamps, then, and especially in 
the neighborhood of limestone rocks and ridges, we may look 
for deposits of marl. 

97. Marls have doubtless sometimes been formed by the crum- 
bling of rocks containing carbonate, or perhaps, silicate of lime. 
It therefore happens that marls are found in hill and mountain 
masses. 

Marl, whenever it is abundant, as it requires neither crushing 
nor burning, generally affords the most economical means by 
which lime can be applied to soils. And as the lime in marl is 
not caustic, but mild, none of the precautions mentioned in regard 
to the use of caustic lime, need be observed with it; nor can 
those beneficial effects that only follow caustic lime be expected 
from marl. 

Having now stated the most important facts connected with the 


28 THE FARMER A PRACTICAL CHEMIST. 


use of lime, the writer feels constrained to bring his remarks to a 
close. He has not thought it advisable to enter upon the details 
for determining the exact proportion of lime in soils. 

Chemical analyses, though well worthy the attention of farmers, 
and though entered upon by some who take interest in such mat- 
ters, will not be attempted, to much extent, by them. The scien- 
tific knowledge, the taste, the time, and the apparatus and che- 
micals, can never be generally possessed, while those who wish 
to engage in these investigations will find that works which treat 
solely on chemistry and chemical analyses, are not only more 
profitable than anything that could be included in this small 
treatise, but are absolutely indispensable to success. 

Nevertheless, there is no species of knowledge that can be of 
more use to the farmer than chemistry. This science is con- 
nected with almost all agricultural operations, and the farmer is 
a practical chemist on a most extensive scale, but often, greatly 
to his loss, destitute of a knowledge of the chemical agents which 
he employs, and of the laws which govern their action. Every 
enterprising farmer, however, who entertains a just opinion of the 
value of scientific knowledge, will soon take such steps to secure 
its benefits, as will give him a great advantage over his more 
plodding neighbors. Inexpensive and easily understood books 
are to be had on all the sciences which interest the farmer. And 
so great now, are the facilities for obtaining such knowledge, that 
none, either young or old, need be destitute of it. 

It is to be hoped that with the means now enjoyed, and likely 
still to be increased, the day is not far distant, when in our common 
schools, chemistry, mineralogy, geology, and botany, will be 
considered studies equally as necessary as reading, writing, and 
arithmetic; and when no person will be thought to have a common 
education, unless he understand the general principles of natural 
science. 


APPENDIX. 99 


NOTE A. 


Tae equivalent or lowest combining proportion by weight of calcium is 20; that 
of oxygen is 8; of carbon 6; and of hydrogen is 1. Therefore the composition of 
lime and its compounds is as follows :-— 


20 parts by weight of calcium 
one “« | ‘oxygen, form 


aoa." “e lime, or quicklime. 


6 parts of carbon, and twice eight or 


ha oxygen, form 

22 carbonic acid. And 

22 & carbonic acid unite with 

235% lime, and form 

50 - carbonate of lime, or mild lime, which contains then only 28 of pure 


lime. Also 
a oxygen, united with 


8 
1 part of hydrogen, form 
9 


parts of water. And 


Sine ot water unite with 
ao 4 pure lime to form 
are * hydrate of lime, or caustic lime, containing 2$ parts of pure lime. 


These numbers, 9 of water and 28 of quicklime, represent the proper proportion of 
water for slacking, but!as lime frequently contains impurities, # of its weight of 
water, which is something less than the true proportion, will generally be sufficient, 
especially as we may depend upon the atmosphere to furnish any deficiency. 


NOTE B. 


Ir is no difficult matter for one who is ingenious, and has some knowledge of the 
principles of chemistry, to determine the proportion of lime ina soil. It is only 
necessary to digest a weighed portion in dilute muriatic acid, to add ammonia in 
slight excess to the clear solution, and then to precipitate the lime with oxalate of 
ammonia. The oxalate of lime may then be collected, dried, and weighed. Accord- 
ing to the accuracy with which the process is managed, will the proportion of lime 
be determined, 


30 APPENDIX. 


NOTE C. 


The simple elements, which are present in fertile soils, and which, in some of 
their forms of combination, may be considered necessary to the growth of plants, 
are the following :—potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, aluminum, iron, man- 
ganese, silicon, sulphur, phosphorus and chlorine. These are mostly combined with 
oxygen, when they form, respectively, potash, soda, lime, magnesia, alumina, oxide 
of iron, oxide of manganese, silicic acid, sulphuric acid, phosphoric acid, and chloric 
acid. The chlorine, however, instead of being combined with oxygen, is found 
united with some of the metals, forming chloride of potassium, chloride of sodium, 
or common salt, chloride of calcium, etc. 

Besides these, plants require hydrogen, nitrogen and carbon, which are furnished 
to them, for the most part, in the respective forms of water, ammonia and carbonic 
acid, and which may be derived, either from the earth, or from the atmosphere. 


NOTE D. 


Magnesian limestones are generally of a yellow color, yet as some other lime- 
stones sometimes have the same hue, color does not serve to distinguish between 
them. A small proportion of magnesia, say one to three per cent., such as is often 
found in limestones, is not sufficient to be injurious. But when the proportion be- 
comes as great as thirty-five to forty-five per cent.,it gives to the lime the properties 
of a hydraulic cement, so that, in a wet state of the soil, it will harden, forming firm 
grains and lumps, and will remain in that condition, undergoing little change. 

Besides, caustic magnesia never becomes completely carbonated by exposure to 
the air, and if slacked with water, it remains entirely caustic, and in this state it 
would undoubtedly be injurious to vegetation. 

When the presence of magnesia is suspected in limestone, the matter may be 
determined by dissolving the limestone in dilute muriatic acid, and dropping clear 
lime water into the filtered solution. If the solution becomes turbid, by the forma- 
tion of a white precipitate, magnesia is present, and using sufficient lime water to 
separate the magnesia, it will all fall in fine powder to the bottom. In this way, the 
proportion of magnesia may be roughly estimated. 

This process of dissolving limestone in dilute cold muriatic acid, may also serve to 
show the proportion of silex, or flint, oxide of iron, and other insoluble matters in it. 
Whatever remains undissolved, after a day’s exposure to a sufficient quantity of the 
acid, cannot be limestone. 


Chemical analyses of soils, ores, mineral waters, etc., will be undertaken by the 
author of this treatise, and information given in regard to whatever is connected 
with the science. For particulars, address James Hyatt, care of John Wilkinson, 
Germantown, Pa. 


APPENDIX. 31 


MOUNT AIRY AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE. 


THIs INSTITUTION Is LocaTED at Mount Airy, Germantown, Pa., seven miles 
from the city of Philadelphia, and is accessible several times a day by both stage 
and railroad. : 

Tuer site is proverbial for its salubrity, and is, in every respect, eminently 
adapted to the objects of an Agricultural Seminary. 

Young men may here enjoy unusual opportunities for acquiring a knowledge of 
Scientific and Practical Agriculture, with the use of the best modern farm imple- 
ments and machinery. 

Instruction is given in the ordinary branches of an English Education, and in 
Book-Keeping, Mathematics and the Physical Sciences. 

Natural Philosophy, particularly Mechanics, Hydraulics and Pneumatics, and 
their connection with the construction of implements, and the movement of ma- 
chinery, as well as Practical Chemistry, and its relation to Agriculture, receive spe- 
cial attention. 

Surveying, Trigonometry and Mensuration, with the use of instruments, field- 
practice and Mapping, will be thoroughly taught. 

THE PRACTICAL FACILITIES Which the Institution has the means of affording, 
cannot be surpassed. There are seventy acres of tillable land which has been for 
years under a highly judicious method of cultivation. The farm being that, so fa- 
vorably known to the Agricultural community, recently occupied by James Gowen, 
Esq. 

The students engage directly in all that is connected with every description of 
crop to which the climate isadapted. There being an abundance of fruit, and or- 
namental trees and nurseries on the premises, their care and management occupy 
much attention. The gardens, the exotic plants and the shrubbery, are such as to 
afford the advantages of instruction in Horticulture and Floriculture. 

Particular attention is given to the management and breeding of Domestic Ani- 
mals. The farm supports a large herd, and the students are expected to have the 
most complete knowledge of all that is connected with such particulars. 

A Lisrary of American and European works, and the Agricultural journals of 
the country, are furnished for the reading of the students. 

The nature of the Institution is such, that here, free from circumstances that are 
repulsive, and from influences that are immoral, in a location attractive and health- 
ful, on extensive grounds, and surrounded by whatever can incite to study, to exer- 
tion, and to ennobling employment, students may, by the assistance of competent 
and experienced teachers, with whom they are associated as members of the same 
family, enjoy the most desirable opportunities, and prepare themselves to occupy 
respectable and useful positions in society. 


The year is divided into two sessions ; the first session beginning on the first Thursday of 
April, the second on the first Thursday of October. 

Terms $100 per Session, payable in advance—including bed, bedding, washing , mend- 
ing, fuel and lights. 


This sum embraces all charges for instruction in the subjects referred to; it 
does not include incidentals, but at the option of the Principal. 
Address the Principal, 
JOHN WILKINSON, 


Mounr Arry Acricutturat InstitutE GERMANTOWN, Pa. 


32 APPENDIX. 


REFERENCES. 
Rospert Ewrne, Esq., Philad., Pa. Ex-Gov. Wm. C. Gisss, Newport, R. I. 
Prof. Jno. Frost, — Gro. Vait, Esaq., Troy, N. Y. 
Tuomas H. Jacoss, s C. N. Bement, Esq., Albany, N. Y. 


Gro. W. Donsrn, Esa., Baltimore, Md. B. P. Jonnson, Esa., “ 
Gen. Wm. H. Ricnarpson, Richmond, Va. Rosert Fartey, Boston, Mass. 


Judge Tuomas Batrzett, Florida. Hon. Samuet WI.pE, Fe 

ZEBEDEE Cook, Ese., New York. Hon. Wm. J. Hussarp, “ 

Tuos. M’Exnats, Esa. “ Hon. Francis O. Warts, “ 

Isaac C. Kennatt, Esa, “ R. W. Crooxsuank, Esq., St. Johns, N. 
Rev. Freprrick A. Fanrtey, Brooklyn. Brunswick. 


Hon. Atrrep Conxii1ne, Auburn, N. Y. 


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